Nationally representative 2019 surveys of households in Russia and Kazakhstan as part of the In the Gulag’s Shadow project show that 34% of Russian respondents and 21% of Kazakhstani respondents claim to have had one relative or more who was sent to prison camps during the Stalinist period. These figures drop to only 26% and 17% respectively when only looking at the youngest cohorts of respondents in the two countries (18-25). Nationally representative 2019 surveys of households in Russia and Kazakhstan as part of the In the Gulag’s Shadow project show that 34% of Russian respondents and 21% of Kazakhstani respondents claim to have had one relative or more who was sent to prison camps during the Stalinist period. These figures drop to only 26% and 17% respectively when only looking at the youngest cohorts of respondents in the two countries (18-25).

Nationally representative 2019 surveys of households in Russia and Kazakhstan as part of the In the Gulag’s Shadow project show that 34% of Russian respondents and 21% of Kazakhstani respondents claim to have had one relative or more who was sent to prison camps during the Stalinist period. These figures drop to only 26% and 17% respectively when only looking at the youngest cohorts of respondents in the two countries (18-25).